Ginevra de Benci Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Ginevra de Benci - Research Paper Example Ginevra de Benci is one of the most beautiful portraits which depict a young woman created in the year 1474. She was a Florentine woman who was married at the tender age of sixteen to Luigi Niccolini in year 1474. The Portrait seems to have been on a wedding photo and on its backside it bore the inscriptions written in the Latin which translates to â€Å"beauty Adorns Virtue†. Looking at the photo background, the appearance of trees and skies is evident which leads to a dreamlike atmosphere which is also evident in other of his works. The young woman in the portrait is seen as looking past which gives her image of being sulky and unforgiving. The Ginevra series was made up of fifty two oil paintings which produced this great work piece. Looking at Leonardo piece of work, Ginevra de Benci which is a Florentine portrait, a lot about art is portrayed. The portrait can be used to tell a lot about the painter, the sitter as well as the way in which people lived during the time. The oil on wood paintings was one of Leonardo’s first works in his career. At this time, there was no other painter who could match Leonardo’s work of art due to his exceptional skills. Through a keen look on the portrait, the simplistic details can be captured; one of these is the place in which the portrait was created. At this period, women were displayed with their husbands in the portraits but here the lady is seen alone. The portraits of women were mostly done during their betrothal as well as during their wedding .In the portrait the lady. seem to face the right side which would imply that it symbolized her engagement this is due to fact that the right side was where the husband was supposed to stand during the wedding portraits but she seems to be staring at it. This would also imply that the work was done in the Italy where Leonardo resided as preparations for the lady’s wedding. Traditions of the time concerning marriage are portrayed by just looking at t he portrait and its history. Looking also at another minor detail, the portrait was done on wood and painted with oil. This would imply that the era was developing and the traditional means of painting were being replaced by better methods. The aesthetic perfection can be seen but more to it, there seems to be a lot which can be partially deciphered from the portrait. Through scrutiny, a lot about the lady in the portrait can be deciphered. Her expression on her face seems to tell more about what is in her mind especially her thought about her future. From the fact that she was preparing for

Military Accountability Essay Example for Free

Military Accountability Essay Purpose: to provide a refresher on property accountability and an awareness of Army physical security. Agenda Government Property Accountability Equipment Sensitive Items Weapons Physical Security Government Property OCIE Your personal equipment Unit/Section Equipment Tentage, Radios, Vehicles, Anything Green Vehicle BII Driver or TC responsible for Accountability Clothing Record (DA 3845 and Electronic) Used for OCIE Hand Receipt (DA 2062) Used for equipment Sensitive Items Cannot be lost Report immediately to the chain of command if missing Comsec equipment Weapons Certain Technology SINCGARS NBC Alarms, NVG’s Weapons Individuals issued arms are responsible for their security at all times. Each issued weapon will be carried on the person at all times. Weapons will not be entrusted to the custody of another person. Pistols will be secured with a lanyard. AR 190-11 Responsibility You are responsible for all US Army equipment you sign for. You can be charged for missing or damaged equipment. If you lose it, report it! A field loss can be investigated if reported immediately. You buy it on the showdown. Physical Security (Defined) That part of security concerned with physical measures designed to safeguard personnel, to prevent unauthorized access to equipment, installations, material and documents, and to safeguard them against espionage, sabotage, damage, and theft. AR 190-16 What Does That Mean? Physical security is meant to counter the threat during peace and war. Threat can range from enemy forces to terrorists to civilian criminals or saboteurs. How to Practice Physical Security Limit Access Secure Equipment Guards Locks Physical Barriers Fences Buildings Access Military Installations (Armories) will have access control. Installation Specific Varies based on Threat. Conclusion Secure equipment! Remember – You signed for it, you own it.

Why Scm Strategy Is Important For An Organization Business Essay

Why Scm Strategy Is Important For An Organization Business Essay Supply chain management plays a vital role in modern day business operations, as carefully planned supply chain process adds value to customers. CIC is a company involved in agricultural products and the only company in Sri Lanka that serve Seed to Shelf motive in local and foreign markets. This document discusses the effectiveness of supply chain and possible waste reduction strategies that can adopt by the CIC, also some measures they have to implement in terms of logistics when they are planning their products in the shelves of other counties. Finally this report discusses about the importance of integrating the supply chain using modern information technology and how it can results in the long run while generating a competitive advantage to the business. Introduction CIC Agro Businesses (Private) Limited is a subsidiary of CIC, which encompasses all the agriculture related businesses that are carried out within the CIC Group. CIC Agro Businesses (Private) Limited comprises of a number of companies. With its wider goal to enhance farmer income, improve the rural economy and contribute towards the development of Agriculture making Sri Lanka a nutritious healthy nation. Vision To be the leader in enriching Sri Lankas agriculture with the best quality produce from Seed to Shelf. Mission To provide innovative technologies and professional management to the agriculture sector contributing significantly to Sri Lankas GDP whilst ensuring trust from farmer to consumer. (Source: www. cic .com) 1.0 Supply Chain Management Supply chain management is the oversight of finances, information, and material as they move in a route from supplier to consumer, passing manufacturer, wholesaler, retailer, etc in between. Supply chain management is an efficient and accepted management philosophy focused at improving the business process of an organization. A supply chain is the network of different aspects. Knowledge, technology, resources, and people involved in the production or manufacturing, and transportation, distribution and marketing are involved delivering products to the final customer. In modern business supply chain activities are used to maximize customer value and achieve sustainable competitive advantage. There are four major elements in Supply chain management, they are Production Production is a major factor in SCM. This element aims on the products the market is demanding and particular products consumers want. At the production element, many features are considered such as what products are to manufactures and in what quantities. Supply and Inventory Inventory visibility and Inventory control are two very significant factors in any supply chain operations, for these elements are the cost factors and directly affect the bottom lines in the balance sheet of the business. Inventory is an asset for the organization. Every business has a standard inventory turnover which is optimum for the business, this means the number of times the inventory is sold and replaced in a given period of time. The health of the inventory turn relates to the health of business Location and Transportation The company decides the best locations to produce the indented goods and focuses on the best process for producing, storing and distributing the production. This decision is depends on the available resources and existing buyers. Other aspects considered in this decision are the location of suppliers. Then the company decides the modes of transportation that is most appropriate for delivering goods.. Information The final element of SCM is information and how it is used, which means the methods of record keeping and passing information that are accurate and effective. This may include using computerized software and integrating all systems together. 1.1 Why SCM strategy is important for an Organization Supply Chain Strategies are the vital backbone to modern business. Successful Market coverage and product availability at locations are the keys to revenue generation, and it depends on the effectiveness of Supply Chain Strategy implemented. In simply terms, when products are introduced to the market and promoted, the company must make sure the accessibility and availability of the products where the customers are able to purchase and take delivery. If the products are not being available at the right time and the right place, can cause a drop in customer interest and demand, which can eventually be disastrous to business. 1.2 Eliminating waste in Seed to Shelf program CIS has a wide product range in their Agriculture and Livestock industry, such as vegetables, fruits, seed paddy, yogurt, curd, rice, eggs, etc which are introduced to the market under the brand name CIC, the brand name is well known in both in the international and local market. The company is dedicated towards agriculture business, and help farmers to increase their incomes, improve rural economies while contributing to the development of the Agro industry in Sri Lanka. CIC Agri also provides with facilities and expertise in the purchasing, set up and maintenance of agricultural equipment and machinery. Furthermore the expertise are been provided in the use of fertilizers and irrigation equipment to increase the production. CIC is carefully managing the seed to shelf supply chain operation effectively and efficiently. But when studying this process, there can be possible areas which can cause waste or cost to the process. Below are the areas CIC must focus their attention in elimin ating waste in their of Seed to Shelf program. Over-production: producing more than or ahead of demand. The result of producing to speculative (forecast) demand or supposed economic batches, it is visible as excessive, time consuming and costly material stores. Employee waiting: this might occur at any stage of the supply chain process, the result is wasted worker time. The goal is to maximize the utilization and/or efficiency of operatives first and machines second. Transportation: this means unnecessary transportation cost in production process, CIC face this problem as the production locations are in rural areas. Work In Progress (WIP) and finished goods adds no value to the product. Therefore it is more cost efficient to minimizing or eliminate unnecessary transportation system, than thinking of improving them. Non-value added processing: doing more work than is necessary to complete a task, or in other words activities that do not contribute to the product or the process. According to Lean methods it is best to use simpler tools and processers in the production, where possible. Unnecessary motion: relating to people stretching, bending, or walking too far, this is a common waste factor can be seen in agricultural industry. This happens primarily due to the inappropriate location of tools, parts inventories and fixtures. Excess inventory: specifically referring to Work In Progress (WIP) between operations and purchased parts within the supply chain, often resulting from overproduction, usually due to excessively large batch manufacturing or processes with long cycle times leading in turn to cost and waste. This will result additional waste in the form of increased lead-times, extra handling, high interest charges, avoidable people movement, excessive floor space requirements and paperwork and, again, the associated costs. Defects: agricultural products are often exposed to pests and other deceases, which cause rotten or putrid crop. This decayed crop adds significant production waste and costs. The organization must focuses on preventing the occurrence of this pest and diseases, before focusing on improving the cultivation processes. 2.0 Logistics Management The Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (CSCMP), the preeminent worldwide professional association of supply chain management professionals, defines logistics as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements.. This definition includes inbound, outbound, internal, and external movements, and return of materials for environmental purposes. Logistics plays an important role in business operation of an organization. Logistics involves from the very beginning of the business process, it starts with post procumbent stage, purchasing and delivering raw materials to production locations which is known as inbound logistics. After production process is completed, logistics again comes to the scene by delivering the final product to end users which is known as the outbound logistics. Therefore it is obvious that the effectiveness and efficiency of logistics process will directly impact the bottom line of the balance sheet. The strength and the productivity of Supply Change Management lies on the factors which are directly involved with logistics such as, Suppliers from various levels and territories, Distributors locally and internationally, Agents and freight forwarders such as cargo, railway, air cargo, sea cargo and so on. 2.1 Logistics Challenges for CIC CIC is focusing on seed to shelf concept on foreign countries as well, there are possible barriers CIC might face in agricultural logistics, some of the identifies barriers are, High supply uncertainty due to natural production: unpredictable variations in quality and quantity of supply, which demands for flexibility in logistic processes and planning and early warning and pro-active control mechanisms; High perishability of fresh food products, which demand for temperature conditioned transportation and storage (cold chains) and very short order-to delivery lead-times; Seasonable growing, which demands for global sourcing to ensure year-round availability; High demands on food safety, quality and (environmental) legislation, which demands for the ability to trace production information of products in transit; High flow complexities, due to a combination of continuous and discrete product flows, diverging and converging processes and by-products; this demands for advanced tracking and tracing and logistic planning capabilities; Important role of export, including additional phytosanitary inspections (Formal certificate issued by an exporting countrys agricultural authorities to ensure the shipment is inspected and is free from pests and plant diseases) 2.2 Measures to overcome logistics challenges CIC can overcome above identified barriers by implementing certain measures to their business processes. Supply uncertainty can manage to a certain extend by focusing at vertical and horizontal integration of value chains. At one end of the value chain the organization can align the support activities that reallocate to sustainable production and precision agriculture, and at the other end of the chain, the company can aim on developing agro logistics with distribution and consolidation centers  which are directly serving export and local markets. Therefore by integrating the value chain CIC is able to pre determine the supply planning and the logistic process. CIC must also focus on post harvest technology since agricultural products are highly perishable, CIC must take appropriate precautions to maintain the freshness of the agri products till it goes to the shelves of other countries, some possible precautions to overcome this are; Smart fresh technology Smart Fresh technology successfully controls fruit and vegetable ripening by controlling naturally occurring ethylene during storage and transport. Ethylene triggers ripening and spoilage in most fruits and vegetables; in some cases it is responsible for important storage disorders, which can cause the spoilage and waste of entire storage areas. Smart Fresh Quality System reduces fruit waste and maintains texture, firmness, taste and appearance of fruits by warding off negative ethylene effects http://www.agrofresh.com/smartfresh/smartfresh.html Cold Chain management Cold chain management means maintaining a constant temperature of a product to ensure the wholesomeness as it is processed, delivered, shipped and stored at the pre determine destination. The cold chain must never be interrupted or disturbed to ensure the long shelf life of the product. This involves relevant equipment, knowledge and people skills during the transportation and storage process from the time they are produced up until they are administered. Packaging of perishables For CIC packaging plays a major role in adding value to their products. CIC should pay a special attention to food safety, protection, tampering resistance and hygiene when packaging agro products. Additionally packaging act as the interface of a CIC product it also using as a medium of reflecting quality which promotes itself compared to other products. When it comes to packaging it is one of the mile stone standards that the company has to focus since they are perishable products. Proper quality measures must be implemented in order to add value to the products, on perspective of nationally as well as internationally adding another competitive advantage for the company and its products and continues improving process. Some quality measures are; Quality Control (QC) this means maintaining and evaluating the standard of manufactured product prior to its marketing. Quality Assurance (QA) set of activities implemented such as quality checks, processes, procedures, etc to identify and correct any mistake that would reduce the quality of the products at each production stage. Standard Operation Procedure (SOP) often the best practice prescribed for recurring use as a the standers operation, in reference to agreed upon specifications focused at obtaining a desired outcome Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) critical preventive guidelines for production operations. GMP addresses areas such as personal hygiene, food hygiene, pest control, waste disposal, water supply and so on Furthermore CIC can expand their logistics process by collaborating with logistics companies which have facilities, reputation, and experience like Maclerens and Logiventure cargo will be one of the way the company could expand and outsource the logistics process. 3.0 Role of information technology in supply chain management Supply chain has always been different companies and different departments within the company working together. Supply chain integration means integrating all activities in the supply chain in to a one key processes. Today, the internet has allowed companies to move these functions to web based networks where clusters of business that typically do business with each other come to gather via the connectivity of the internet. Companies can collaborate and communicate with each other through a single internet interface. When all the participants in the supply chain become connected electronically, allowing the unfettered flow of information, the supply becomes fully integrated. Utilizing web based technologies; companies are starting to integrate their supply chains in a system-to-system manner, minimizing the need for human contact, human data entry or any sort of human involvement. Moreover data can move in real time and disparities in size of companies are becoming less critical as software providers come up with solution that allows small companies to connect with large customers through the web. While the application to connect companies with their trading partners are far from free, the internet is relatively inexpensive medium, unlike a value added network (VAN) that charges a per transaction fee for data transmission. E-commerce is driving a revolution of the supply chain, as we have known it. With processes once took days or weeks now taking minutes to perform, the potential to cost saving through efficiency is greater than ever. E commerce solution providers have come forward with new tools that enable supply chain participants the opportunity to connect and collaborate via web based net works. While analysts, consultants, solution providers and enterprises continue to debate how companies ultimately will integrate those new tools into their operations and the shape of the supply chain of the future, there is a consensus forming around one vision for the next generation supply chain. The underlying theme is connectivity. As a result, we are moving from production base supply chain to a fulfillment base model. In industrial age, production was the primary business activity. In the technology age, fulfillment becomes the primary business activity. The trading networks that are set up turn the chain upside down and create a demand chain where customer order drives the business activity. Consequently fulfillment of customer demand is the key, it is no longer about tossing the customer a product; it is also about improving customer relationships through better customer service. 3.1 Enterprise Resource Planning System for CIC Each stage of the supply chain must be aimed on making the transition as productive and cost effective as possible. But, most of activities in the supply chain add little to the final outcome. This scenario is also same with CIC, therefore CIC can integrate their supply chain using modern E strategy, and most appropriate solution would be an ERP system. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems streamline business processes by allowing all departments and divisions within a company to access a common database which they upgrade via their own module. An ERP System will enable communication and information sharing between all business functions and helps to manage the connection with its internal and external stake holders. By implementing an ERP system it is easy for the organization to trace the companies upstream and downstream functions and other relevant business functions, facilitating Lean supply chain management. Effective ERP System can add value to CIC in improving many business functionalities. For an example it will improve and complement the Value chain, VMI (Vendor manger inventories), ECR (Efficient customer response), Global supply chain Seeds to shelves from global perspectives and Contribution to business objective that means aligning SCM and corporate objectives and strategies. 3.2 Benefits of Integrated supply chain An obvious benefit CIC can gain is reduction of inventories. CIC can change from Just in case inventory management to Just in time inventory management. Better inventory management allows increased turns in the inventory cycle, which reduces holding cost while increasing the cash flow. CIC supply chain runs from rural villages in Sri Lanka to market shelves of other countries. Therefore information sharing and information management is very vital to manage the business from seed to shelf. By having better information and better access to the information, customer service can be substantially improved by being able to make more timely and accurate sales and on time delivery, replenishment and shipping decisions. Emerging technologies allow trading partners to collaboratively plan, track orders through fulfillment process, maximize process efficiency based upon historical performance data and provide superior service to the point of delivery. Finally process automation across the extended enterprise reduces the amount of manual process and potential error. This removes the opportunities for incorrect data entry. Incorrect data or information cause reliance upon confusing and contradictory information, which often leads to customer dissatisfaction and disputes between trading partners. Not only does this reduce cycle time, if it occurs repeatedly over time it is likely to cripple the very relationship that is the heart of the business. The companies that adapt the collaborative tools and processes available today, and into the future, will find that the ultimate benefit of participating in a networked supply chain is a significant competitive advantage over their competitors that do not participate. In that case, supply chain integration does become the end game. Conclusion Supply chain plays a major role in CIC on achieving the seed to shelf vision. To achieve this vision effectively CIC must first focus and take necessary steps to eliminating waste in their supply chain process. Then the company should take needed precautions in terms of logistics in order to ensure the quality and the availability of the CIC products in the shelves of other countries. Finally CIC can use modern information technology to integrate the supply chain process and optimize their service.

The History of Math Essay examples -- essays research papers

The history of math has become an important study, from ancient to modern times it has been fundamental to advances in science, engineering, and philosophy. Mathematics started with counting. In Babylonia mathematics developed from 2000B.C. A place value notation system had evolved over a lengthy time with a number base of 60. Number problems were studied from at least 1700B.C. Systems of linear equations were studied in the context of solving number problems. The basic of mathematics was inherited by the Greeks and independent by the Greeks beg the major Greek progress in mathematics was from 300 BC to 200 AD. After this time progress continued in Islamic countries Unlike the Babylonians, the Egyptians did not develop fully their understanding of mathematics. Instead, they concerned themselves with practical applications of mathematics. Mathematics flourished in particular in Iran, Syria and India from 450B.C. Major progress in mathematics in Europe began again at the beginning of the 16th Century. The 17th Century saw Napier, Briggs and others greatly extend the power of mathematics as a calculator science with his discovery of logarithms. Cavalieri made progress towards the calculus with his infinitesimal methods and Descartes added the power of algebraic methods to geometry. Euclid, who lived around 300 BC in Alexandria, first stated his five postulates in his book The Elements that forms the base for all of his later Abu Abd-Allah ibn Musa al’Khwarizmi, was born abo...

Current and Future Relevance of Development Anthropology

What does happiness mean? Ask this question to different individuals and surely you will obtain varying answers. There could be related or similar answers, but no two individuals will have the identical definition of happiness, unless of course, they had a prior discussion on the matter and took time to set parameters on how they would define the term. It is just like saying that one’s definition of happiness can be as unique as one’s fingerprint. Why is this so?As human beings, each of us has his/her own purpose in life. We may have the same basic needs to keep us alive. but each of us has his/her own desires and aspirations as we go on living These are our goals in life. Up to what extent we are able to reach our goals becomes the basis of fulfillment, which in turn is the parameter of a person’s definition of happiness.There are more than 101 ways to define happiness because human beings as individual living organisms vary. Each one of us has a certain uniquen ess which sets us apart from other members of the Animal Kingdom.Similarly, development is a term which is as subjective as the word happiness. Probably because both terms involve the satisfaction of humans’ needs and wants. This is why there are numerous bases for the achievement of both. But unlike the meaning of happiness which is taken more on an individual context,   a discourse on the meaning of development is much more complex because it involves not just one human being but a community, or even a whole nation.The meaning of development depends on various paradigms. Defining it quantitatively in terms of economic growth has become inadequate which makes it even more difficult to give a concrete meaning of the word. Thus, different schools of thoughts and various disciplines have their own arguments on how to properly define the term while trying not to overlook how the term itself is being perceived by the objects or targets of the development process.The various dis courses on and practices of development have paved the way for the rise and growth of development anthropology. (Escobar 1991)Development anthropology is defined as:The application of anthropological perspectives to the multidisciplinary branch of development studies. It takes international development and international aid as primary objects. In this branch of anthropology, the term development refers to the social action made voluntary by different agents (institutions, business, enterprise, states, independent volunteers) who are trying to modify the economic, technical, political or/and social life of a given place in the world, especially in developing nations. (Wikipedia)Development anthropology which takes off from the conventional or traditional view of development is what is being espoused by scholars such as Escobar. The traditional view of development is development according to how Western societies view it which is much more about modernization of local cultures and the adoption of Westernized lifestyle. In the paper, â€Å"Anthropology and the Development Encounter: The Making and Marketing of Development Anthropologyâ€Å", Escobar presented and discussed this view and as conclusion, called for a revision on the practice of development anthropology, specifically in the utilization of development models which he referred to as â€Å"recycled combination of the traditional growth models.†Development anthropology, for all its claim to relevance to local problems, to cultural sensitivity, and to access to interpretive holistic methods, has done no more than recycle, and dress in more localized fabrics, the discourses of modernization and development. Can the good intentions of development anthropologists be preserved and their activities be reoriented significantly in ways that undermine, rather than reinforce, these paradigms? (1991: 677)It is this view that made him towards the end of the article pose the question: Is there a future relev ance for development anthropology? Escobar went on further to conclude that:Anthropological studies of development will of course continue to be important, but they would take a different form. Anthropologists could examine how communities in the Third World are progressively constituted through the political technologies of development, and could elucidate the larger cultural and economic projects that such technologies deploy with them. First, however, it will be necessary to renew our way of listening to the voices of different groups of people in the Third World, without making them into signs of a need for development, and to renew our awareness of the suffering caused by human institutions and actions, development or otherwise.Finally, anthropologists may contribute through this type of work to a collective practice of re-envisioning ways of organizing societies and economies, ways of relating to nature and to one another that have a better chance for life. In the process, we may discover other ways of caring and of healing the ravages brought about by development in the Third World. Some grassroots social movements seem to be pointing the way. (ibid: 678)Escobar emphasizes that it should be the people themselves who should decide on the course of the development process based on what he called â€Å"local realities†. The idea should come from within and not from the perception of outsiders who usually consider the lack of modernization as the take-off point for the development process.In his paper â€Å"Anthropology and Development: Evil Twin or Moral Narrative?†Ã‚   Gow (2002) pointed out the weakness of the localization of development as being espoused by Escobar due to the current trend of globalization. He explains that â€Å". . . the present effects and future implications of globalization (however much contested), surely demonstrate once and for all the limitations of what is now ambiguously termed localization. Certain human needs and human rights can be taken as universal, the basis for a moral narrative in this new millennium of development.† The moral narrative that Gow is referring to is the dilemma of anthropologists (the writers) in   defining development in terms of the vision of a good society.   To quote:By framing the values of development in moral terms, rather than say economic terms (the market) or political terms (democracy), these writers not only escape from the tyranny of ideology, academic discipline, and political fashion; they also elevate the general tone of development discourse, for what they are proposing is a vision of the â€Å"good society†. (ibid: 310)I believe that the current and future relevance of development anthropology depend on whether it follows the path being suggested by Gow, that is, elevating the meaning of development in terms of   the moral vision of a good society.   In this age of satellite technology, when even the remotest places on Earth co uld have access to communication facilities and the mass media, the preservation of local culture is becoming a serious concern.People are influenced by modernization as they are exposed to various forms of technology, and many of them especially the younger generation aspire to leave and prefer to settle for a much modern lifestyle in cities. More than ever, development anthropology is relevant in order to direct the correct path of development wherein the living condition of the poor is alleviated to the point wherein they will have enough basic needs and services while at the same time retaining their cultural identity and who they are as a people is never lost or forgotten.The role of development anthropology therefore should be focused on determining the people’s vision of a good society, and from there the design of a suitable development framework and the conceptualization of strategies that could guide institutions in coming up with the right formula for development. This way, Escobar’s grassroots involvement is compromised while being open to the trend of globalization. An example would be to consider the willingness to commercialize the production of exotic handicrafts which are originally for sole domestic consumption. If the people look at this as a way to alleviate their economic condition while promoting their culture, then the development anthropologist should see this from a positive perspective and not as a sign of moral degradation.Development anthropologists have focused on four themes in performing their role which defines their current and future relevance to humanity.An increasingly focused sense of the anthropological contribution defined in terms of what anthropologists say about culture and social relationsOpposition to the marginalization of indigenous peoples and their knowledgeCynicism about the aims and practices of developmentThe emergence of critical views of development and the development processLIST OF REFERENCES Escobar, Arturo. (1991) ‘Anthropology and the Development Encounter: The Making and Marketing of Development Anthropology.’ American Ethnologist [online] 18 (4) 658-682. Available from http://www.jstor.org/stable/645446 [22 May 2009]Gow, David D. (2002)’Anthropology and Development: Evil Twin or Moral Narrative?’ Human Organization 61 (4) 299-313Wikipedia (n. d.) ‘Development Anthropology.’ Available from http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/Development_anthropology [30 May 2009)

Phillip Morris

Philip Morris promotion of Marlborough cigarettes. Instituted in the sass's. The brand moved to and assured that the flavor would be unchanged by the decision of adding a filter. â€Å"Come to where the flavor Is: Come to Marlboro man,† Marlboro man was a rugged cowboy smoking Marlboro cigarettes while rolling his horse In the outdoors. The ad helped propel Marlboro to the top of the world market Threefold 1 ) Significant economic advantages. Standardized advertising lowers the cost of value creation by spreading the fixed costs of developing the advertisements over many Mounties. Ex.Coca Cola saved $90 million over 20 yr by using certain elements of Its campaign globally 2)Creative talent is scarce and one large effort to develop a campaign is much more successful than numerous amounts of smaller efforts 3)many brands are global brands Against standardizing advertising 1) cultural differences between nations- a message that works In one nation could potentially fall In anothe r nation. Cultural diversity makes It difficult to develop a single theme that Is effective on a global level 2)advertising regulations may block implementation of standardized advertising.Ex. Kellogg could not use a commercial it produced in great Britain to promote its product in other European countries. A reference to iron and vitamins in its cereal was not allowed in the Netherlands because health and medical benefits were outlawed. In France children are not allowed to endorse products. In Germany a key line was disallowed because of competitive claims. Another example would be American express offering bonus points every time the card was used. And the points could be used towards air ravels and hotel accommodations.Germany competition law was broken as it is suppose to prevent the offer of free gifts In connection with the sales of goods. Dealing with country differences Experimenting with capturing benefits of global standardization while recognizing differences in countrie s cultural and legal environments. Some features to include in all of its advertising, which can result in saving on costs while building international brand recognition. Monika in the sass's launched a global advertising campaign † 1001 reasons to have a Monika imaging phone.Did this to reduce costs and capture economies of scale. Value in trying to establish a global brand image. Used actors from regions where the advertising covered. And used local settings as well. Doves global real beauty campaign 1) Milliner, who marketed dove a storied consumer multinational with global reach, a strong positioned In fast growing developing nations, and a reputation for customizing products to condition prevailing In local markets. ( ex. Indian women OLL hair before washing , so western shampoos that TLD remove the OLL didn't sell well.However, milliner reformulated shampoos for India. Company exaggerated because it has shifted towards a global emphasis. Dove. Brand should stand for the real beauty of all women. Mission was to make women feel more beautiful everyday by widening the stereotypical definition of beauty and inspiring them to take care of themselves. 3) Following workshops held around the globe that brand managers and agencies communicate beauty. Asked 67 photographers to submit portraits of women of all shapes, sizes and ages. Dove photo tour. ) German office of Milliner advertising agency, Googol and Matter worldwide, came up with a concept for communicating real beauty based on photographs showing ordinary women in their underwear. Advertisement made its way to the I-J where they perceived it as politics and not advertising. 5) 2% of women worldwide considered themselves as beautiful and the half thought their weight was too high 6) 2004 campaign was launched globally. Radical shift form Milliner . Tweaked to take local sensibilities. 7) Milliner extended the dove product line to include skin creams, shampoos, and shower gels.Made a video on youth 8) Dove created â€Å"Evolution, depicting the transformation of a real woman into a model and promoting awareness of how unrealistic perceptions of beauty are created. † 9) â€Å"he Dove global study, Beauty Comes of Age, revealed that 91% of women ages 50-64 believe it is time for society to change its views about women and aging. The campaign celebrated the essence of women 50+ ?wrinkles, age spots, grey hair and all. It was brought to life through a communications campaign created with internationally renowned photographer Annie Leibniz. 0) â€Å"The [email  protected] Movement for Self-Esteem provides women everywhere with opportunities to mentor the next generation and celebrate real beauty. â€Å"11)†[email  protected] has created self-esteem- building, educational programs and activities that encourage, inspire and motivate girls around the world. Dove has reached over 7 million girls so far with these programs, and set a global goal of reaching 15 million girls by 2015. † -supply chains looks like -How Is it going to come in? -How you will market? Brand is the logo, 100, and connotations â€Å"Bat† night, up late.

Free Essays on Cokes History

The Coca-Cola company started out as an insignificant one man business and over the last one hundred and ten years it has grown into one of the largest companies in the world. The first operator of the company was Dr. John Pemberton and the current operator is Roberto Goizueta. Without societies help, Coca-Cola could not have become over a 50 billion dollar business. Coca-Cola was invented by Dr. John Pemberton, an Atlanta pharmacist. He concocted the formula in a three legged brass kettle in his backyard on May 8, 1886. He mixed a combination of lime, cinnamon, coca leaves, and the seeds of a Brazilian shrub to make the fabulous beverage. Coca-Cola debuted in Atlanta's largest pharmacy, Jacob's Pharmacy, as a five cent non-carbonated beverage. Later on, the carbonated water was added to the syrup to make the beverage that we know today as Coca-Cola. Coca-Cola was originally used as a nerve and brain tonic and a medical elixir. Coca-Cola was named by Frank Robinson, one of Pemberton's close friends, he also penned the famous Coca-Cola logo in unique script. Dr. John Pemberton sold a portion of the Coca-Cola company to Asa Candler, after Pemberton's death the remainder was sold to Candler. Pemberton was forced to sell because he was in a state of poor health and was in debt. He had paid $76.96 for advertising, but he only made $50.00 in profits. Candler acquired the whole company for $2,300. Candler achieved a lot during his time as owner of the company. On January 31, 1893, the famous Coca-Cola formula was patented. He also opened the first syrup manufacturing plant in 1884. His great achievement was large scale bottling of Coca-Cola in 1899. In 1915, The Root Glass Company made the contour bottle for the Coca-Cola company. Candler aggressively advertised Coca-Cola in newspapers and on billboards. In the newspapers, he would give away coupons for a free Coke at any fountain. Coca-Cola was sold after the Prohibition Era t... Free Essays on Cokes History Free Essays on Cokes History The Coca-Cola company started out as an insignificant one man business and over the last one hundred and ten years it has grown into one of the largest companies in the world. The first operator of the company was Dr. John Pemberton and the current operator is Roberto Goizueta. Without societies help, Coca-Cola could not have become over a 50 billion dollar business. Coca-Cola was invented by Dr. John Pemberton, an Atlanta pharmacist. He concocted the formula in a three legged brass kettle in his backyard on May 8, 1886. He mixed a combination of lime, cinnamon, coca leaves, and the seeds of a Brazilian shrub to make the fabulous beverage. Coca-Cola debuted in Atlanta's largest pharmacy, Jacob's Pharmacy, as a five cent non-carbonated beverage. Later on, the carbonated water was added to the syrup to make the beverage that we know today as Coca-Cola. Coca-Cola was originally used as a nerve and brain tonic and a medical elixir. Coca-Cola was named by Frank Robinson, one of Pemberton's close friends, he also penned the famous Coca-Cola logo in unique script. Dr. John Pemberton sold a portion of the Coca-Cola company to Asa Candler, after Pemberton's death the remainder was sold to Candler. Pemberton was forced to sell because he was in a state of poor health and was in debt. He had paid $76.96 for advertising, but he only made $50.00 in profits. Candler acquired the whole company for $2,300. Candler achieved a lot during his time as owner of the company. On January 31, 1893, the famous Coca-Cola formula was patented. He also opened the first syrup manufacturing plant in 1884. His great achievement was large scale bottling of Coca-Cola in 1899. In 1915, The Root Glass Company made the contour bottle for the Coca-Cola company. Candler aggressively advertised Coca-Cola in newspapers and on billboards. In the newspapers, he would give away coupons for a free Coke at any fountain. Coca-Cola was sold after the Prohibition Era t...

Good Great Gatsby essay essays

Good Great Gatsby essay essays American society during the 1920s was a time of cynicism, loss of values, and was mainly defined by ideological and social battles. World War I was a turning point to society and altered the class structure through ideological reform. After the war, which had been called the war to end all wars by Wilson, people began to lose their sense of ideals resulting from disillusions of the true purpose of the war. This marked the disappearance of faith and common values such as American Dream, the age-old ideal that had so far been the key to Americas success, the ideal of working hard to achieve goals, and the replacement of material wealth for spiritual ideals and morals. The traditionalists, who acquired money through legal means and still retained a strict sense of morality, were reluctant to accept the modernists into their society because they seemed jaded by corruption of materialism. The modernists were the group of people who as a result of their disbelief in morals and values had become dependent on money rather than the betterment of their souls spiritually. The modern aristocrat was characterized by using money as power and by giving in to greed and carefree lives. The main conflict in society was of money overpowering morality or modernists against traditionalists. Most of the other parts of society had not been caught up in the new fervor of corruption and were still living the American Dream. These people were suppressed by the dominant modern, urban society in which they were ignored by the fast paced, elite upper class. The Great Gatsby examines this dominant society and through the characters that represent the urban society, it portr ays subtly criticizes and encourages change in this society. The Great Gatsby as a whole was a great social insight and documentation of the life and ideals of the 1920s. It could be a warning of the dismal future of society if people did not recover their ideals and values and repair the...

An Analysis Of Liberal Democracy In Russia Politics Essay

An Analysis Of Liberal Democracy In Russia Politics Essay Russia is one of the important countries and the largest country in the world, which established worldwide power and influence in the international politics. The arguable question, in which interested a lot of knowledgeable people, is what the regime has the Russian Federation after the death of Communism and how it works. The majority of Western Europe and USA has very critical opinion about Russian politics and definitely argue that Russia has not liberal democracy. They also believe that it is unlikely to thrive in post-Communist Russia. In my essay I will debate if liberal democracy could thrive or not in Russian Federation, giving the arguments and facts of both sides. Firstly I will argue that liberal democracy cannot thrive in Russia because of many arguments. The first is the high level of corruption. The second is the siloviki and oligarchs, who have enormous political power. The third is absence of media freedom. The fourth is lack of civil society. The fifth is Constituti on, which give a lot of power to the president and no strong opposition. It means that Russia has a one-party system. However, there is some soil for liberal democracy. The first argument is democratic experience. The second argument is a right to create political parties. The third is a right to practise citizens’ culture and religious. The fourth is a freedom of speech, belief and discussion. I argue that liberal democracy could thrive in Russia, only if the barriers to liberal democracy will pass, such as corruption, siloviki, absence of media freedom. I will argue that to make more suitable soil for liberal democracy Russia should change a Constitution, to create a strong opposition, and emphasis for reforms, which protect individual rights, increase civil liberties, improve the well-being of citizens; develop society to pursue their interests and develop own talents. But, when these criteria would not be achieved, liberal democracy is unlikely to thrive in post-communist Russia. Criteria of liberal democracy Firstly, I would like to define democracy and describe the criteria of liberal democracy, looking which of them Russia has. According to McFaul, democracy is the institutional arrangement where the individuals have the power to make political decisions by means of competitive struggle. According to this minimal definition and implicit in ‘analysis of the rule of law, civil society and the party system in Russia is an ideal type of liberal democracy rather than a minimal standard of electoral democracy’ (McFaul, 2004: 2-3). However, liberal democracy has the criteria, by which we could judge Russian regime. The first is the control of the state by elected civilian officials; the military is subordinate to the government. The second is a right to form a party and contest the elections by any group, which adheres to constitutional principles. Thirdly, a right for different ethnic, religious or different minority groups should exist fo r practicing their culture or express their interests in the political process. Fourthly, the freedom of belief, opinions, discussion and speech should exist. The last is that the citizens are equal under the law.

The reasons for the fall of Communism and the USSR Essay

The reasons for the fall of Communism and the USSR - Essay Example However very soon, it was expelled by Joseph Stalin in the year 1927 and such rule became completed in the year 1991. The year 1991is a remarkable year for the citizens of Soviet Union as USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republic) also regarded as Soviet Union Collapsed. It is regarded as one of the largest countries that collapsed due to the sudden blast of a nuclear super power thereby shattering the entire world. So, it is one of the most well-known dates in the history of Soviet Russia (Lorimer, The Collapse of ‘Communism’ in the USSR â€Å"Causes and Significance†). This essay mainly highlights the reasons for the fall of the communalism and USSR of Soviet Russia along with the pros and cons of such a collapse. Other than this, it also highlights the effect of such a collapse in the entire world in both positive and negative ways. Apart from this, a small evaluation part is also presented in the essay to evaluate the positive and negative effects of such a collapse along with a conclusion as well. History of Soviet Union The Soviet Union came into existence from the revolution occurred in the month of October that overthrew the Russian Provisional government and as a result, the Soviet Party came into power. It was dominated by Bolsheviks and followed by Russian civil war. The Soviet Union is also traditionally regarded as the successor of the Russian Empire (Lorimer, The Collapse of ‘Communism’ in the USSR â€Å"Causes and Significance†). The Soviet Union was ruled by the last Russian Tsar named Nicholas II from March 1917 t o 1922. At the end of the year 1922, the predecessor to Soviet Union came into existence as the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, an independent country. Therefore, in 1922, the country of Soviet Union developed mainly due to the union of several neighboring countries such as Russia, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Transcaucasian Soviet Republic. Thus, after World War II, both Soviet Union and United States became engaged in cold war as they tried to make their individual influence in the entire world. The entire national politics at that time was dominated by the parties of the Cold War and the prime cause of this U.S.–USSR struggle was to attain planetary authority of their individual socio–economic systems as well as defeat of the hegemonic spheres of influence of the country. At that time, despite the presence of Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), a five-year planned economy comprising of a (post-New Economic Policy), and repudiation of the Molotovâ⠂¬â€œRibbentrop Pact secret protocols, remained as the main character of Soviet society till 1985 (Lorimer, The Collapse of ‘Communism’ in the USSR â€Å"Causes and Significance†). At this time, in order gain influence Soviet Union extended their maximum power over Eastern Europe and Cuba and also a considerable control was also maintained over the citizens of the country. At that time, the country was ruled by Leonid Brezhnev known as Brezhnev Era, experienced high economic growth and prosperity, but soon ended with a very weaker Soviet Union facing numerous social, political, and economic problems. Along with this, the average annual income also lowered, resulting in a quite devastating condition within the country. On the other hand, United States looked over the other parts of the world to extend their line of influence and power. Therefore, it may be depicted from the above scenario, that inspite of numerous best rulers, the social and economic condition of Soviet Union may not be

Nursing Essay on Gerontology Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Nursing on Gerontology - Essay Example Thus, the three main nursing diagnoses of the patient are 1) ineffective airway clearance related to pneumonia and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), 2) impaired gas exchange related to acute and chronic lung disease, and 3) displaying symptoms of depression due to respiratory illness. It is highly possible that her respiratory condition is caused by her history of smoking. Cigarette contains noxious chemicals that irritate the respiratory lining. These protective mechanisms include the increased production of mucus layers the epithelium to prevent the chemicals from reaching the cells, causing further damage. In addition, the respiratory cells to divide in a faster rate to try to compensate for the chemical-induced tissue injury. As a result, the normally one-cell thick respiratory epithelium that is able to facilitate gas exchange between the atmosphere and blood is now converted to a thick epithelium with multiple cell layers, which decreases the amount of air passing t hrough. This clinically presents as ineffective airway clearance, causing impaired gas exchange, thus explaining the shortness of breath experienced by the patient, and the need for supplement oxygen to meet the demands of the body (Reilly, Silverman & Shapiro, 2012, pp. 2153-2154). Addressing the first two nursing diagnoses should be prioritized because these two are the ones causing the depression. In fact, it is estimated that almost one-third of individuals suffering from a chronic medical condition present with signs of depression. When a person acquires a chronic illness, he or she must adjust both to the disease and to its treatment. Consequently, the health condition can affect a person’s independence, quality of life and perception. These changes cause significant stress that can push a person to abnormal levels of sadness, causing depression. Although a lesser priority, this nursing diagnosis should also be addressed since the loss of interest, sleep disturbance and repeated thoughts of death or suicide can adversely affect management of the concomitant respiratory disease (Cleveland Clinic, 2009). III. Open-Mindedness Again, the patient has depression resulting from the inconvenience brought by ineffective airway clearance and impaired gas exchange due to chronic airway obstruction, not elsewhere classified. Based on this statement, the measurable outcome should include 1) increased forced expiratory volume in a second (FEV1) to demonstrate improvement in airway clearance 2) increased oxygen saturation of hemoglobin to objectively measure improvement in gas exchange, and 3) better functional status (SF-36 Health Survey) score compared to before treatment. IV. Inquisitiveness Nurses have a vital role in the achievement of these outcomes. To improve FEV1 and oxygen saturation, nurses should first be familiar with the management plan of the patient. A) They ensure that the patient’s medications, bronchodilators for airway obstruction and supplemental oxygen to improve gas exchange, are being taken as per the doctors’ orders, so that homecare can become an option (Hernandez et al., 2008). B) Any questions about these medications, both by the patient and her family, should be addressed to promote compliance and adherence. By doing so, this can involve the family into the patient management (Jonsdottir, 2008). C) Also, the patient should be guided during the measurement of FEV1 using spirometer and oxygen satura

Chapter 3 & 19 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Chapter 3 & 19 - Assignment Example Offering customized packaging for customers is however an example of a secondary value and may change with financial constraint with the aim of minimizing cost while retaining utility (Kotler and Armstrong, 2012). A company’s microenvironment and macro environment influences the entity’s decision through inducing constraints or opportunities. Factors in both scopes influences an organization’s decisions as it tried to adjust to constraints and opportunities that the environment offers. There are however many differences between macro and microenvironments. Micro environmental factors are limited to an organization or just a few organizations while macroeconomic factors are significant to all organizations in a set up. Examples of macroeconomic environment factors are political and cultural conditions, factors that affect all organizations, while suppliers and competitors are examples of micro environmental factors and their effects are limited to the subject organization (Kotler and Armstrong, 2012). Exporting, joint venture, and direct investments are some of the strategies for adapting products into a global market. Exporting involves production in a country and then moving the products to the target market in a foreign country and may be direct or indirect. Joint venture however involves collaboration with natives from the target market for product delivery while direct investment involves independent ventures in the target market. Joint venture is the best strategy because it helps an entity to manage barriers market entry by ensuring a link between the entity and natives in the target market, challenges that are significant in cases of export and direct investments (Kotler and Armstrong, 2012). Tariffs and quotas are economic policies for regulating international businesses. Both policies can be used either to increase the flow of commodities across

Medical Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Medical - Essay Example Hormones are like chemical messengers and they need to be present in the right amounts in order to effectively carry out their designated functions. Any upset in hormonal levels can result in symptoms. There are several tests which can be performed in order to diagnose abnormalities in hormonal functions. Firstly, in order to diagnose whether your blood sugar levels are within normal limits and whether your body is producing the right amounts of hormones needed to effectively utilize and store the sugars that we consume, there are a number of diagnostic tests. The first one is the fasting blood sugar. For this test you have to fast overnight (i.e. eat or drink nothing, except water, for about 8-12 hours) and give a blood sample. The level of sugar in your blood sample is compared against a reference range and if it is greater than 126 mg/dl on more than one occasion, it is diagnostic of diabetes (Encyclop?dia Britannica, 2011), which is an impairment in the body’s capacity to effectively utilize and store sugars. Another confirmatory test for diabetes is the glucose tolerance test, whereby you will be made to give two blood samples. To prepare for the test you have to eat a normal balanced diet for upto three days preceding the tests. Then, like for the fasting blood sugar test, you have to fast overnight, for duration of about 8 hours and the first blood sample is collected. After that you will be made to drink a liquid containing 75 grams of glucose and a second blood sample is taken 2 hours later (Encyclop?dia Britannica, 2011). The blood sugar values obtained are compared against normal standards and if the value of the blood sugar levels obtained 2 hours after the glucose drink exceeds 200 mg/dl, it is diagnostic of diabetes (Becker, 2001). One of the most important gland in our body is the pituitary gland, which releases various hormones required to stimulate all the other glands in our body to secrete their respective hormones. The pituitary gland in turn is stimulated by hormones secreted by the hypothalamus which is an important region in our brains. These together form the hypothalamic-pituitary axis. Inorder to evaluate the normal functioning of hypothalamic pituitary axis, the insulin tolerance test is carried out. The night prior to this test, you will be asked to fast, i.e. not eat or drink anything except water. The morning when the test is performed, you will be first injected with insulin, which is a substance which will lower your blood sugar. Our body’s normal response to low blood sugar levels is to secrete two hormones growth hormone (GH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which in turn stimulates the secretion of another hormone called cortisol (National Institutes of Health (NIH), 2011). After the insulin injections timed blood samples will be taken and the levels of GH and cortisol will be checked and compared against the normal reference ranges to see whether the normal secretion of these substa nces in your body is present or not (National Institutes of Health (NIH), 2011). In order to evaluate the functioning of the thyroid gland, which is an important gland located in our neck, there are several tests. A complete panel of tests to assess proper functioning of the thyroid gland is termed as the thyroid function test. This panel includes levels of different form of thyroid hormones such as T3 and T4 which are different circulating forms of thyroid hormone in our bloodstream (American Thyroid Association, 2005). Moreover, this

Policy Issue Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Policy Issue Paper - Essay Example The energy security is a very vital issue and deserving of its inclusion in the State of the Union address because it is concerned with the most valuable component of American life, - the energy which fuels the entire US nation, from the west to the east coast, to life. Without this energy source, life in America and everywhere in the world will virtually halt to a standstill. Oil is the chief energy source of the United States and not surprisingly, US is the top oil user in the world, guzzling 20, 588,000 barrels of oil per day according to a 2006 statistic (EIA 1). The problem however with this valuable fossil fuel is that not only is it a potential powerful political tool but that its very availability is now in question. There are claims that oil world resources are dwindling although some quarters like the Cambridge Energy Research Associates are disputing this CERA 2006). It can be fairly said however that the issue of global warming is by now beyond dispute although largely still unacknowledged. Recent scientific studies has established that the burning of fossil fuel emits carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and, along with other greenhouse gases, prevents sunlight from being reflected out of the earth’s atmosphere causing global warming. A hot planet in turn, disturbs climate cycles, melts the ice in the north and south poles altering the water-land ratio, and changes ecosystems (NRDC 2007). With these problems, it shouldn’t be a surprise therefore that the President, in talking about energy security, primarily focused on reducing oil consumption and specifically suggested alternatives like the â€Å"funding of technologies that can generate coal power while capturing carbon emissions†, increasing â€Å"the use of renewable power and emission-free nuclear power,† â€Å"investing in advanced battery technology and renewable fuels,† creating a â€Å"new

Chapter 3 & 19 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Chapter 3 & 19 - Assignment Example Offering customized packaging for customers is however an example of a secondary value and may change with financial constraint with the aim of minimizing cost while retaining utility (Kotler and Armstrong, 2012). A company’s microenvironment and macro environment influences the entity’s decision through inducing constraints or opportunities. Factors in both scopes influences an organization’s decisions as it tried to adjust to constraints and opportunities that the environment offers. There are however many differences between macro and microenvironments. Micro environmental factors are limited to an organization or just a few organizations while macroeconomic factors are significant to all organizations in a set up. Examples of macroeconomic environment factors are political and cultural conditions, factors that affect all organizations, while suppliers and competitors are examples of micro environmental factors and their effects are limited to the subject organization (Kotler and Armstrong, 2012). Exporting, joint venture, and direct investments are some of the strategies for adapting products into a global market. Exporting involves production in a country and then moving the products to the target market in a foreign country and may be direct or indirect. Joint venture however involves collaboration with natives from the target market for product delivery while direct investment involves independent ventures in the target market. Joint venture is the best strategy because it helps an entity to manage barriers market entry by ensuring a link between the entity and natives in the target market, challenges that are significant in cases of export and direct investments (Kotler and Armstrong, 2012). Tariffs and quotas are economic policies for regulating international businesses. Both policies can be used either to increase the flow of commodities across

Policy Issue Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Policy Issue Paper - Essay Example The energy security is a very vital issue and deserving of its inclusion in the State of the Union address because it is concerned with the most valuable component of American life, - the energy which fuels the entire US nation, from the west to the east coast, to life. Without this energy source, life in America and everywhere in the world will virtually halt to a standstill. Oil is the chief energy source of the United States and not surprisingly, US is the top oil user in the world, guzzling 20, 588,000 barrels of oil per day according to a 2006 statistic (EIA 1). The problem however with this valuable fossil fuel is that not only is it a potential powerful political tool but that its very availability is now in question. There are claims that oil world resources are dwindling although some quarters like the Cambridge Energy Research Associates are disputing this CERA 2006). It can be fairly said however that the issue of global warming is by now beyond dispute although largely still unacknowledged. Recent scientific studies has established that the burning of fossil fuel emits carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and, along with other greenhouse gases, prevents sunlight from being reflected out of the earth’s atmosphere causing global warming. A hot planet in turn, disturbs climate cycles, melts the ice in the north and south poles altering the water-land ratio, and changes ecosystems (NRDC 2007). With these problems, it shouldn’t be a surprise therefore that the President, in talking about energy security, primarily focused on reducing oil consumption and specifically suggested alternatives like the â€Å"funding of technologies that can generate coal power while capturing carbon emissions†, increasing â€Å"the use of renewable power and emission-free nuclear power,† â€Å"investing in advanced battery technology and renewable fuels,† creating a â€Å"new

Plato, Gorgias Essay Example for Free

Plato, Gorgias Essay Introduction  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Plato’s Gorgias is actually the story of virtue. Plato was evidently trying to resolve the ever lasting debate of what virtue was and what elements constituted virtue. In his dialogue with Gorgias, Socrates has not unilaterally concluded what virtue was; he has rather discussed what it could be. I totally agree with Plato who states that â€Å"the good is not the same as the pleasant, my friend, nor the evil as the painful† (Plato), because to be pleasant means to be subjective, and the notion of good is evidently an objective philosophical category. Virtue may be determined through the prism of its separate elements. Even when each of us individually determines what virtue is, there are still certain specific societal norms which may help us distinguish between good and evil. Plato has actually created several grounded suggestions as for what virtue was by discussing its separate elements: power, justice, temperance, and art.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Rhetoric is to justice what cookery is to medicine† (Plato). This may initially seem surprising, as virtue and rhetoric are the two completely different philosophical categories. Moreover, there can hardly any connections between these two. However, Plato links them through the importance of rhetoric to justice, and through the importance of justice to the virtue. Objectively, the whole dialogue between Socrates and Gorgias comprises several separate discussions which are connected by one common topic: virtue. Plato was trying to depict virtue as the system of separate attributes and elements, and to discuss them through the prism of those elements: art, temperance, evil, and good. This is why Plato has concluded that good could not be equaled to pleasure due to its objectivity as opposed to the subjectivity of pleasure. Plato started Socrates’ dialogue with the discussion of art of rhetoric, and has led it to the issue of the greatest good. As virtue is determined and is directly connected to the greatest good, it is crucial that people know what this greatest good is. â€Å"That good, Socrates, which is truly the greatest, being that which gives men freedom in their own persons, and to individuals the power of ruling over others in their several states† (Plato). That was the vision of the greatest good as expressed by Gorgias. This is the individual vision of Gorgias, which may not always be accepted by others. As a result, how do we determine the difference between the false and the true arts? How do we determine what false and what truthful knowledge is? These were the questions raised by Plato in his Gorgias, and this is where the philosopher again implied that the greatest good was an objective, and not subjective philosophical category. Good and evil are the two objective categories which can even be taught or learnt. Subjective categories can hardly be learnt, this is why Plato implies that good is objective. Only objective philosophical categories can be learnt by others and can be perceived in a manner expected by other members of the society: â€Å"so he whom you make a rhetorician must either know the nature of the just and unjust already, or he must be taught by you† (Plato).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In his work, Plato speaks much about evil. Evil is opposed to good, and is also considered to be an objective philosophical category. According to Plato, evil is rooted in the wrongful and shameful acts. The seriousness of evil can either be determined by the extent of shame the person experiences, or by the severity of physical pain the person feels. It is interesting that this is the only position which is unilaterally accepted by all participants of the conversation. â€Å"Then I said truly, Polus that neither you, nor I, nor any man, would rather, do than suffer injustice; for to do injustice is the greater evil of the two† (Plato). Plato explicitly determines what the greatest evil is, and Socrates’ opponents have but to agree with him. Pain is subjective, and being involved into evil does not mean experiencing pain. Evil is the integral element of the discussion of virtue. There cannot be any effective discussion of what virtue is, without trying to define what evil can be. The importance of evil as philosophical notion is in its being linked to other crucial notions within the framework of virtue discussion. Politics, power, temperance – a philosopher cannot evaluate these categories away from evil. As Plato concludes that injustice and intemperance are the two greatest evils, he not only confirms the philosophical objectivity of evil, but he once again returns to the issue of pleasant and good: pleasant cannot always be good, and evil cannot always be pain. There is clear distinction between subjective and objective philosophical categories, and this is the key to understanding the implications of moral standards in Plato’s society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As Plato speaks about good, evil, justice, temperance, power, and other important philosophical categories, he pursues the ultimate aim of his discussion and his lifelong philosophy: to define what virtue is. Those who participate in Socrates’ discussion, actually participate not in the dialogue, but in the brilliant argument upon the relevance and objectivity of these categories. Nonetheless, the objectivity of power, temperance, and justice is not debated: these also constitute the objective notion of virtue. As evil is not always pain, and good is not always pleasant, Plato also tries to show that â€Å"a man should be temperate and master of himself, and ruler of his own pleasures and passions† (Plato). Thus, a person should realize what common good is, what pleasures he is to suppress and to temper his passions. This knowledge of good and evil is the objective realization of societal standards and norms. This is the realization of how good or evil impacts our existence. Plato uses this key comparison between pleasant and good to show that he was correct in his assumption: virtue is the objective notion, and it can be determined in universal philosophical terms, which are objective, too. The separate objective elements (power, justice, temperance, art) ultimately constitute the philosophical structure of virtue.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I absolutely agree with Plato: pleasant is never equal to good, and pain is never equal to evil. Let’s discuss this point in detail. A simple example will help understand my position. We are constantly involved into the process of taking decisions. We must decide how to behave, how to apologize, how to avoid troubles, etc. There are the two distinctive criteria, on which we can base our judgments. First, we can rely on the universally accepted norms of human behavior in our society. Our standards make us aware and teach us how we should behave in certain situations, and what good and evil is. Second, we may also rely on our pleasure, and pleasure may become the main criterion in our decision making. This means that we will not rely on norms and standards of human behavior: we will use extremely subjective measurements which may hardly be accepted by others. Here pleasure is very close to personal tastes, which are never identical. If I enjoy historical documentaries, this does not mean that my brother will like them too; he would hardly accept the situation in which I will constantly watch this type of TV programs, and will not let him watch what he wants. This is where pleasure and good come into action. This is where objectivity and subjectivity of virtue become almost tangible. If I base my decision on pleasure, I will neglect the interests of other family members, and will keep doing what I want. Does this mean that I am good, if I experience pleasure in this situation? Certainly, it does not. Good is not similar to pleasant, and pleasure is a subjective category. What pleases me does not necessarily pleases others, but what is good is usually good for everyone. Being generous, attentive to others, and sharing is good; it is also good for those who need this attention and generosity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This prism of discussion also possesses a different facet. When a person is good to others, does it mean that this person is pleased with such situation? Coming back to the issue with television and documentaries, a person may certainly accept the need to follow the general standards of virtue, good, and temperance. This person will do everything possible to suppress the wishes and pleasures, and to let other family members watch TV. Simultaneously, this need â€Å"to be good† will probably urge the person to step over his inner principles, and to pretend that to be good is pleasant. This person may avoid displaying the displease with such situation, or may not conceal the irritation, but it is evident that to be good for this person is not to feel pleasure of this goodness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What I see as the key element of Plato’s argument, is the need to distinguish between the true and the false elements of virtue, between the objective and subjective standards of our conduct, and between pleasure and good. Plato was also discussing the elements of evil and pain in his work, but these issues seem less relevant to our lives. Evil is always evil, no matter whether it causes pain, but good is not good if it is based on one’s pleasures only.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In his philosophical work, Plato was actually trying to determine what virtue was. The philosopher used a bright parallel between good and pleasant to suggest that good was objective, and pleasant was subjective. The criteria of pleasure are mostly misleading when a person has to decide what good is. The problem is that good is an objective notion, and the standards of good are usually universally accepted within the specific society. Simultaneously, pleasure is a narrow subjective philosophical category. There is no such notion as universal pleasure. If a person pursues pleasure, this person risks being rejected by the society in the way he rejects the principles of objective good and virtue. If a person wants to follow the standards of good, pleasure should be pushed to the background. In this context, good is not always pleasant. The obligation to conform to the norms of the society is not always linked to any pleasant emotions or perceptions. In order to be accepted by the society, a person might need to overstep his personal principles, and to recognize the importance of good, temperance, power, and justice as the integral components of virtue. Ultimately, the person is to praise the objective moral categories, and to put them ahead of subjective perceptions. This is how human virtue works for the benefit of the whole society. Works Cited Plato. â€Å"Gorgias†. Translated by Benjamin Jowett. 1995. ILT Digital Classics. February 14, 2008. http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/publicATIONS/Projects/digitexts/plato/gorgias/gorgias.html

Processes Of Globalization Are Causing Increasing Cultural Convergence Media Essay

Processes Of Globalization Are Causing Increasing Cultural Convergence Media Essay Interaction of the people, organizations and the most importantly among the governments of the nations is called the process of globalization. The process is determined by trade between the two nations, investment in their businesses and through the information technology and has some effects on the culture, environment, political and economic development of the country as well as on the well being of the human beings. There is no clear-cut definition of the globalization in general or in academic writings. For some, it is a means of freedom, prosperity and for others it is the means of prison and poverty. In the modern era some state the globalization as the process of modernism. This shows that everyone has make its own meaning and is affected by its global practices (Schirato Webb, 2003). Globalization has both negative and positive effects on the quality of life. In some respects it decreases the human security and peace while increasing crimes, but in some other cases it increa ses the human security by means of grater cultural pluralism (Scholte, 2000). Convergence means of bringing together things and it can be of different types, whether it can be technological, social, global, economic or cultural convergence. Culture convergence occurs when different cultures become more alike in terms of technology, sports, language and even in politics (Christopher, 2005). Globalization alone does not decide the shape and quality of the culture and the same way culture also does not alone manipulate the globalization. Both are interdependent on each other. In his book Globalization and culture, John Tomlinson states that Globalization lies at the heart of modern culture; culture practices lie at the heart of globalization. This is the reciprocal relationship. (Tomlinson, 1999). Globalization has transformed us and the most important it changes our culture. The history shows that contact between two different cultures leads to trade of products between them. Travelers and merchants from one culture to another culture bring products with them which make people to know about the other culture and their products. But today, due to globalization the products are spread rapidly through newspapers, television, telephone and internet. The computers and cellular phones were first made and used in the western world but now they are available everywhere, even in the less developed countries where landline cables are not even available. Technology has made the nations to know about the others and even to adopt their culture if they like something in the culture of other societies. In this era of Globalization, technology and products has deep impact on the cultures. People used to go to cinemas to watch movies before, but now they can watch it on their computers, same is the case with food where junk food can easily be grabbed and eaten in rush. Lets talk about American culture, people throughout the world watch Hollywood movies, TV shows and use English language as the primary as well as second language in their home country. Even their dressing has been changed; they like to wear jeans and t-shirts. We are living in interrelated world where people travel in air, have newspapers, televisions and other means of communications and they know everything that what is happening in the other society. Globalization is bringing the culture together by minimizing the scope of diversities. The ongoing global culture is not more than just the spread of Americanization. Hershey, Mars, Starbucks all has their markets in more than eighty countries around the globe, where they are spreading the food habits of their own culture into another culture. Another best example is of McDonalds food which is being served in almost every other country. Globalization is a process in which media and consumer culture is making the homogeneity around the globe, but on the other hand it is also said that globalization is demolishing the local cultures and traditions. This global culture is actually the westernization of the culture due to the capitalism. Global trade has made it easier for the nations to import and export their products. This culture convergence has now become a global culture having something common among the cultures or often called common community. Global culture convergence progresses when sport teams of different countries come together to take participation in international sports events like Olympics and world cups. Internet is available around the globe now and firms and even small businesses use it to market their products. The concept of e-marketing is increasing day by day and has important impact on the behavior of the business markets and the customer. The firms are changing their e-marketing strategies in order to compete in the global markets by attracting more customers around the globe (Sheth Sharma, 2005). The credit cards play an important role in the life of the consumer through which they can buy the products easily even if they dont have cash at the time of clearance. Consumer behavior has been changed over the past few years and the best example to study this behavior is the online social networking. People desire to get materialism, global capitalism and have brands represents the trends of the consumer culture. The globalization has strengthened and changed the way of organizing the capitalism. Means of communication has increased the awareness of the consumers regarding brands, food, music and life of the people of other nations. Globalization has increased the culture convergence which forces the governments to provide best and cheap products from all over the world to satisfy their own people (Ohmae, 1995). Technology has driven the world towards convergence where every wants to experience the new thing around the world through technology (Levitt, 1983). The globalization has changed the concepts of marketing and now organizations are customer-oriented and their focus is more on the profits as compared to sales. The organizations are get change worldwide now due to oligopoly and mergers. The companies are competing in global market place and having strategies and activities that focus on the global market opportunities and threats to gain the competitive advantage over their competitors (Keegan Green, 2003) . In order to compete in global markets, all firms need to craft strategies regardless of their sizes and functions. The global companies focuses on what consumer wants in order to achieve the long term success and they are selling same things everywhere in the same way that drive the world towards cultural convergence (Levitt, 1983). The companies are now well aware of the needs of the consumers as well as they are kindling the need for their products through promotional programs and advertisement. The best example is of Coca cola who thinks globally by giving a message of uniting the nations may be a source of competitive advantage for the company. The mass media and especially advertisements of the products continuously hold the people to think about the products in the market. Youth is the primary target of the advertisers because they think that once they persuaded the people in their young age, then they will remain with the goods and services forever. Advertisements persuade people to buy the products. The study conducted on German and Chinese culture reveals that German people find advertisement more convincing and informative than Chinese people, which shows that perception from advertisement has important impact on the consumer intentions to accept or reject the brands and the products (Chan, et al., 2007). The research shows that the new world has changed the marketers now they are dependent on other companies within their homeland or in other nations for their profits (Fellman, 1999). For example the most famous merger is of Disney and Pixar, Cisco and Linksys, eBay and Skype, Microsoft and Yahoo, Google and YouTube, Apple and neXt and JP Morgan Chase. Coca Cola comes in our mind when we talk about best and successful global advertisements. The brand is made from the same formula and sells with same strategy throughout the world. Ethics in visual representation of the advertisement is very important and there is need to understand the issues related to visuals representation (Schroeder Borgerson, 2005). In the study of advertisement strategies of the companies in America, Europe and Asia it is revealed that in order to face the global consumer culture, America and china both have shown similarity in their international advertisements, having the visible western and non western values (Jiang Wei, 2012). Cultural globalization has found everywhere now and it occurs through media that creates homogeneity across the nation. The best example of cultural globalization is coca cola and McDonalds. Media and communication are the integral parts of the globalization and there can be no globalization without them (Movius, 2010). The international marketers are facing issues regarding the set standard of advertisement in the age of globalization. Jiang Wei, (2002) in their studies shows that the companies insight creative strategies in their advertisements to have one voice or reliable effect of brands in the global market. History shows that consumption patterns of one nation always influenced the consumption behaviors of the other nation. In modern consumption culture very minute differences found between the products and consumption is differentiated on the basis of the brands names. Consumer culture is global now because of the link between the culture and identity of the individual. Capitalism has changed the self images of the people and alters them into consumers. The current study of consumption shows that that the consumer culture should be conducted systematically based on technical level as well (Miller Rose, 1997). There is a need to better understand the lives of the consumers or the ways in which they manage their identities through consumer subculture (Schouten Mcalexander, 1995). Mooij, (2011) argued that the consumption patterns of people are local, the brands and products can be global but people and their motive to buy such brands are not global. The study of indian culture shows that decisions related to consumptions are not made alone, they are closely related to the values and cultural loyalty. The process of globalization has made culture as an important issue which needs to be handle properly because conumption pattterns of the people and their cultural values both have greater impact on the marketing decision making (Banerjee, 2008). Globalization has increased the cultural convergence by means of technology, media and trade between the nations. Globalization makes the culture to come together and have some similar tastes in life and music and technology. The process of having similar norms and values is most common in teenagers. Teens around the world whether they are in America, Africa or Asia, watch the same channels and advertisements and the most important their access to internet develops the similar consumption patterns in them (Mooij, 2011). Cultural convergences has created more job opportunities for the people and saved many cultures. The study shows that due to globalization, marketization of the culture is very important for the survival of any culture which gives them an identity and save them (Howes, 1996). Although globalization has many positive impacts on the quality of life but this also increases the inequality between the nations and even within the countries. Policies are needed in the process of globalization which addresses the processes of production and the ways in which the poor countries connect with the global producers and consumers of the economy (Kaplinsky, 2000). This is not necessary that globalization only leads to the homogeneity of the cultures. There can only be the homogeneity of certain aspects of the society or economy otherwise there cannot be homogeneity among the culture and if this happens it will be very slow to differentiate. Advanced technology has created a difference among the cultures clearly. If we look back to 1960s we see that Asian culture find Americans modern in every aspect of their lives but today communication technology creates a difference. But now they dont find American ideal because of the family decay system. Both cultures can now see the values of each other clearly. (Mishra, 2008).

Technological Advances in World War 2 :: World War II History

Technological Advances in World War 2 New advances in technology changed warfare in WW2. The change in technology since WW1 has produced such things as Atom Bomb, and new and improved sea and air warfare. New techniques had to be used because of technology, techniques such as 'mouseholing'. More people were killed because of technology, as more people died in WW2 than WW1.The technological advances in WW2 changed the battlefield completely as more deadly auxiliary was introduced. The technological advances since WW1 introduced such things as the atomic bomb and new and improved sea and air warfare. The atom bomb was a big part of WW2 as people could be killed from a bomb from a long distance. This bomb also covered a long area killing more people and people of the area bombed could still be feeling the effects in the form of cancer. New air warfare such as fighter jets were introduced in WW2. These planes carried deadly bombs and could take out a large number of people. New sea warfare was introduced, such ships as the corvette were popular, and the corvette was mostly used for shipping ammunition to Europe from North America. Also, submarines proved deadly as they were out of radar and carried deadly bombs such as the torpedo. New techniques had to be used in WW2 because of the updated technology. Techniques such as 'mouseholing' and 'lightning warfare' were some of the new techniques used. Mouseholing is when the soldiers would blow a hole in the wall of a building and move through the building capturing the nazi soldiers instead of going out on the open street and getting snipered. Lightning warfare was used by the Germans and it was when planes were first sent in to a designated area and bombed the area and then the tanks would be sent through then finally the soldiers. This was done to take over countries and to get the country to surrender and clear the area out. More people died because of technology in WW2. More people were killed in WW2 then WW1, as the technology was updated in WW2. Technology can be great but in the case of WW2, it proved tragic. Updated technology such as the entire auxiliary used in WW2 proved to be working because way more people died in WW2 than WW1. Rapid advances in bombs and guns proved deadly, WW2 was a very bad example of technology.

Reincarnation :: essays research papers

Reincarnation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A weird idea of much interest is that of reincarnation. What is reincarnation? Some say it's the fact that a person's soul lives without a body and throughout the years possesses different bodies. Is this true or is reincarnation the result of a mentally unstable person's vivid imagination or even the result of cryptomnesia, when a person takes something they have heard or seen, forgets about ever hearing or seeing it and then remembers the event(s) as happening in another life. These three hypothesizes each seem plausible in there own right. With the help of the SEARCH method it will be shown which hypothesis fits best.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hypothesis 1: When a person dies the soul undergoes a process called reincarnation, in which the soul lives another life in the future.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The evidence I have to back up this particular claim is that of a story I read in People magazine awhile back. In this story a woman, who goes by the name of Jenny Cockell, claims to have experienced reincarnation. She claims she was once a woman, who went by the name of Marry Sutton, who died 21 years before Jenny's own birth. Jenny believes this because of dreams she has had since the age of three. These dreams were unlike ordinary dreams in how vivid and real they seemed. In the dreams Jenny saw herself in another time and place. She saw herself as a young mother living in a small cottage somewhere in Ireland. In one dream particularly Jenny saw herself with a terrible fever on her own deathbed, terrified of what was to become of her children. One day Jenny decided to find out what had become of these children. So Jenny went to Ireland and while looking at a map of Ireland she sensed that Mary had lived in the small town of Malahide. Then she checked local church records for any mothers of eight named Mary that had gone there. Since from her dreams Jenny recalled there being eight children and the only name she could remember from the dreams was Mary. Sure enough Jenny found a Mary Sutton had lived and died in Malahide. Mary's children had been scattered among family members and orphanages. Then through much search and hard work to find these children Jenny eventually found all of Mary's children. Before Jenny met with any of the children she and the children both agreed to allow a BBC researcher to test Jenny's memories of Mary and Mary's children The tests resulted in a 98 percent agreement. Jenny knew what pictures were on the walls of the Sutton home, other objects in the house,

Comparison of HR practices and employment relations philosophies Essay

Introduction In the face of ever-increasing globalization, both China and Taiwan have now joined the World Trade Organisation (WTO); a more open market economy and closer integration with the global economic order appears to be inevitable for both countries (Magarinos et al. 2002). Human Resource Management (HRM) is one of the critical tools for improving productivity and competitiveness at the grass-roots level (Poole 1997). This Essays aims to identify and compare the current HRM systems and practices at different types of enterprises in both China and Taiwan respectively (Zhu and Warner 2000), to evaluate their performance in this domain, as well as to illustrate the implications of the inter-relationship between social norms/ environment and the transformation of HRM in both economies. The outcome of this comparison may be meaningful in terms of understanding the theoretical arguments about the trend of HRM development towards a ‘convergent’ or ‘divergent’ model within the global production and economic systems of our time (Warner 2002) or possibly a hybrid ‘cross-vergent’ phenomenon where national cultural systems are blended with broader economic ideologies . HR practices and employment relations philosophies of China HRM is a term used to describe a wide range of activities involved in attracting, developing, motivating, and retaining the best and most capable people to perform within an organization. Western HRM places importance not only on systematic recruitment but also on selection, training, and development procedures, emphasizing motivation through involvement, and appraisal and incentives schemes (Child 1994). But the HRM in China is different. Its distinctive system is labelled human resource management with ‘Chinese characteristics’ (Warner, 1995). Labour management in China is currently undergoing a major change, shifting from the socialist model to a market-driven one. The ‘iron rice bowl’ is being slowly phased out. Guaranteed lifetime job security is being replaced by more flexible labour contracts. The ‘cradle to grave’ social welfare system is also fading out, with more performance-based reward systems replacing it (Warner 1997). Prior to the mid-1980s, when the Chinese government began economic reforms, most personnel issues enterprises were controlled by planning authorities, such as government personnel and labour bureaucrats. For instance, the recruitment of any person needed a pre-planned quota that was granted by the state. Neither the employees nor the employers (enterprises) had freedom to choose according to their preferences. People were assigned jobs for life with limited mobility. A worker’s personnel file recorded his/her employment history as well as a broad range of the person’s political activities. Wages and salaries were not determined by management, but fixed according to pre-determined grades based on seniority. Moreover, the Party Secretary’s organization maintained tight control of personnel within an enterprise. A manager’s political attitudes towards the Party were an important criterion in his/her appointment and promotion (Ding et al. 2000). The past two decades have seen the Chinese economy steadily evolve towards the state-engineered ‘market economy with Chinese characteristics’ (Warner, 1995). The productivity of the labour force has been recognized as the most valuable resource from the top central government to the grassroots organizations. The term ‘ren li zi yuan guan li’ (HRM in Chinese) frequently appears in books, local newspapers, and journal articles. In the real world, much has changed in HRM practices in China. One of the biggest changes is the increasingly predominant position of material rewards. The old wage grade system was abandoned nationally and the new ‘post plus skills’ (gang ji gong zi zhi) system was adapted. Under the reformed employment system, Chinese managers now have greater freedom to ‘hire and fire’ (Child, 1994). Even though fully fledged HRM on Western lines seems still far away, many personnel policies have been substantially changed: workers are employed on fixed term contracts, apprenticeships have been reformed, and training has been expanded for both workers and managers in most Joint Ventures and State Owned Enterprises (Warner, 1997). With the reforms of the employment system, a new terminology of HRM cam to China in the mid- 1980s (Warner 1999). Initially, HRM as an academic concept was introduced by joined teaching arrangements between Chinese and foreign universities, as well as in management practices in foreign-owned enterprises, mainly from Japan, the USA and Europe (Warner 1995). The Chinese translation of HRM is renli ziyuan guanli hich means ‘labour force resources management’. But in fact, some people now use it misleadingly as a synonym for personnel management (PM) (renshi guanli) and indeed treat it as such (Warner 1997). This form of older PM practice is still very common in SOEs and a fair degree of conservatism continues to pervade the administration of personnel on such enterprises. Certainly, it is still somewhat far from the initial concept of HRM as understood in the international business community (Poole 1997). In parallel, attempts were made to import ‘enterprise culture’, code for adopting and adapting the Japanese model (Chan 1995). This is normally found in firms entering JV arrangements with Japanese MNCs or where the Japanese have set up wholly owned firms on site. Some aspects of the Japanese management system such as the quality control circles (QCC) and total quality control (TQC) have been practised in both local and foreign companies. However, the system is closely adapted to local laws and practices. The term HRM is in fact mostly de rigueur in the most prominent Sino-foreign JVs, particularly the larger ones. Even in such firms, management seems to be more inward-looking, focusing on issues like wage, welfare and promotion as found in the conventional personnel arrangements rather than strategic ones like long-term development normally associated with HRM. Clearly, at this time, there is not a homogeneous model of HRM in Chinese enterprises. Individual enterprises are reforming their HRM systems differently on the basis of their existing conditions and the respective impact of economic reform. HR practices and employment relations philosophies of Taiwan The Taiwanese management system is also rooted in traditional Chinese culture and values, predominantly in the form of small size family businesses, coupled with strong family control and extensive subcontracting networks (Chen 1995). However, in the first half of the twentieth century, Taiwan was colonized by Japan and Japanese influence was widespread, including its management system. Taiwan gradually developed large businesses in the capital – intensive sector owned and/or controlled by the State under the Nationalist government since the late 1940’s (Lee 1995). Generally speaking, the characteristics of the Taiwanese management system can be summarized as follows: hierarchy, paternalism, strong personal loyalty and commitment, and the importance of personal loyalty and commitment, and the importance of personal connections (guanxi) in business and individual lives (Chen, 1995). These characteristics are rooted in Confucianism, a belief system that values harmony, and the tendency to see individuals in a family and socially dependent context. Different stages of economic development were accompanied by differing management patterns. In Taiwan, for instance, its economic development since the 1960’s can be divided into two stages: the export expansion period between 1961 and 1980 and the technology – intensive industries expansion period from 1981 to recent years (Lee, 1995; Zhu et al. 2000). HRM in Taiwan also changed over the two periods. The main characteristics of HRM during the export expansion period can be identified as follows: Recruitment Recruiting blue-collar workers relied heavily on informal channels, such as employee referral and company network. For the recruitment of white – collar workers, formal channels were preferred (Lee 1995). Since most middle and high- ranking management positions were filled either by the owners’ family members or by internal promotions, little outside recruiting activity took place (Lee 1995). Training Company – sponsored training was not popular during this period. Apprenticeships were also not common in Taiwan. However, as a rule, more skilled workers received formal on-the-job training (OJT) than did semi-skilled and unskilled workers, and foreign-owned companies offered more OJT programmes than did local companies (Lee 1995). Compensation Packages include basic pay and various types of bonus, such as those based on the year-end results, competition, invention, long-service and so on (Chen 1998). It was common for Taiwanese companies to adopt the Japanese seniority-based wage system for basic pay (Lee 1995). With the traditional culture of avoiding conflict between management and employees, most workers can be promoted up the scale of their job title if their annual performance is ‘above-average’ (Chen 1998). Trade Unions These worker bodies were controlled by the government during this period (Zhu et al. 2000). The ruling Kuomintang (KMT) – now known as the Guomingdang Party – guided most unions through local government control over the election of union officials, fostering KMT branches at workplaces and ‘supervision’ by larger affiliates of the sole national union peak council, the Chinese Federation of Labour (CFL) (Zhu et al. 2000). Thus the government was able to maintain a low minimum wage and control the adjustment of wage rates in the public sector (Lee 1995). Expansion of Technology – Intensive Industries (1981 – Present) During this period, not only did the structure of the economy change quickly, but employment relations, human resource management practices, and the government’s labour policies were similarly affected (Lee 1995). The industrial system became more complex and formal, and government policy became more pro – labour orientated as mentioned above. Changes in industrial structure and government policy and legislation had a profound impact on HRM and the structure of organisation in Taiwan. To cope with the increase in production costs employers adopted many strategies, such as employing foreign workers at lower wages; with government permission (companies can employ foreign workers up to 30 % of total employees) (Zhu et al. 2000)., improving the efficiency of the workforce by providing more training, introducing automated machinery to substitute labour, and subcontracting their work (Lee 1995). In addition, in order to obtain a further comparative advantage many companies from Taiwan relocated their operations to low-wage countries, especially to mainland China and south-east Asia (Zhu and Warner, 2001). However, different kinds of enterprise have different approaches towards change in the labour market and to the challenges of global economic competition. Two major variables here are predominantly family-based small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and predominantly state- owned large enterprises (LEs). Most SMEs still maintain a centralised decision-making process. However, there is now a tendency for owners to gradually withdraw from routine management activities. Some high-ranking managers are trained and promoted within the companies and are not necessarily family members. Management professionalism becomes increasingly important as a response to criticism of managerial favouritism. Most SMEs now pay attention to both pre-training and continuous training in order to cope with market changes and link the skills of employees with the needs of production. Trade unions have generally been weak in Taiwanese SMEs. Although the Trade Union Law (1975) required unions to be established in workplaces in most sectors with more than 30 employees (Lee 1988; Warner 1995) the reality is that even now a large number of SMEs are without union organisations. There is a general feeling that managers in SMEs do not want union involvement in decision-making (Zhu and Warner 2001). On the other hand, state-owned large enterprises (Les) in Taiwan for years enjoyed monopoly status in key sectors. They were mostly in the strategic industrial areas that had received strong support from the government. However, in recent years, privatisation and marketisation have dominated their economic decision-making and these enterprises are facing restructuring and reform. Generally speaking, LEs have well-established systems of external recruitment of managers. Using examination, interview and evaluation procedures, SOEs can recruit the most capable people from outside their organizations. For a long time, people sought positions within LEs for security, better pay and welfare, good working environment, and social prestige; it made recruitment even more competitive. Therefore, so far the qualifications of managers in these enterprises remain highest, with university graduates and post-graduates of high quality. In addition, public recruitment of employees is the main recruiting channel for Les. However, the public sector is not allowed to employ foreign workers. In terms of training, both on-the-job training and professional training are provided by the enterprises. The compensation package has not been changed as well. In fact, among all types of enterprises, Les seem to have the highest salary-levels. Bonuses are paid as group incentives equivalent to three or four months’ wages (Zhu and Warner 2001). Trade Unions in the Taiwanese public sector have been subservient to the government for a long time (Frenkel et al. 1993). Even now, trade unions in these state-owned LEs are not wholly independent, although they have a strong membership base. The functions of these unions were described as ‘promoting enterprise productivity as well as protecting workers’ interests’; they also provide a useful bridge between employees and management in order to guarantee smooth industrial relations (Zhu et al. 2000). Comparatively speaking, we can see that HRM policies and practices in China and Taiwan were both plainly under the influence of traditional culture (Redding 1995) and the changing political and economic environments (Zhu et al. 2000). Key characteristics such as collectivism, hierarchy, harmony, loyalty and strategic thinking can for instance, be found in both management systems. these characteristics are reflected in HRM, for example, in group-oriented production activities (teamwork), group-based performance evaluation and incentives, relatively narrow gaps in salaries between management and employees, co-operative and harmonised labour management relations and seniority-based wage systems (in particular during the pre-reform systems). In addition, strategic thinking and management have had to deal with such changes, in particular during the period of economic transition. In recent years, both increasing global competition and the Asian financial crisis have forced enterprises to adopt more flexible policies and management systems. New political environments, reformed legal frameworks and economic pressures have also have also added new dimensions of HRM. Conclusion Although traditional culture continues to influence HRM, such as group-oriented production activities, group-based performance evaluation and incentive, relatively small differences in salary between management and employees, co-operative and harmonious labour management relations, and so on, other differences remain vis-à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½-vis the stage of economic development and technology, market environment. In conclusion, it can be argued that that there will at least be a degree of ‘relative convergence’ (Chan 1995) given the evidence presented here. The trends towards globalisation may in many significant respects only strengthen tendencies towards greater similarities in HRM policies and practices over the coming decades, although both societies can be expected to retain their distinct identities.    References 1. Chan, A. 1995, Chinese Enterprise Reforms: Convergence with the Japanese Model? , Industrial and Corporate Change, Vol.14, No. 1, pp.449-70. 2. Chen, M. 1995, Asian Management Systems: Chinese, Japanese and Korean styles of Business, London: Routledge. 3. Chen, S.J. 1998, The Development of HRM Practices in Taiwan, Human Resource Management in the Asia Pacific Region, London: Frank Cass, pp. 152-69. 4. Child, J. 1994, Management in China During the Era of Reform, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5. Ding, D.Z., Goodall, K. and Warner, M. 2000, The End of the Iron Rice Bowl: Whither Chinese HRM?, International Journal of Human Resources Management, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 217-36. 6. Frenkel, S., Hong, J.C. and Lee, B.L. 1993, The Resurgence and Fragility of Trade Unions in Taiwan, in S.Frenkel (ed.), Organised Labour in the Asia-Pacific Region: a Comparative Study of Trade Unionism in Nine Countries, Ithace, NY: ILR Press, pp. 162-86. 7. Lee, J.S. 1995, Economic Development and the Evolution of Industrial Relations on Taiwan, 1950-1993, Employment Relations in the Growing Asian Economies, London: Routeledge, pp. 88-118. 8. 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